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Showing posts with the label Molecular Cell Biology

Distinguish between primary and secondary cell culture

To distinguish between primary and secondary cell culture, we must first understand what each term represents and how they differ in terms of origin, growth behavior, life span and application. Primary cell culture  refers to the initial culture that is directly derived from animal or plant tissues by mechanical or enzymatic disaggregation. The cells in this culture closely resemble the in vivo state both genetically and functionally. However, these cells have a limited capacity to divide and usually undergo senescence after a few passages. On the other hand,  secondary cell culture  is derived from the subculturing or passaging of primary cells. After several passages, the cells that adapt better to in vitro conditions may give rise to a more stable population. In some cases, these cells may undergo transformation and acquire the ability to proliferate indefinitely, forming a cell line. Now, based on several key features, we can distinguish between primary and secondary ...
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What are the different routes followed by proteins targeted for lysosomal degradation?

Lysosomal degradation is one of the two major  intracellular pathways  responsible for maintaining  protein homeostasis  in eukaryotic cells, the other being the  ubiquitin-proteasome system.  While the  proteasome  primarily degrades  short-lived  or misfolded proteins that are tagged with  ubiquitin,  lysosomal degradation mainly targets  long-lived  cytoplasmic proteins, membrane proteins, protein aggregates, damaged organelles and extracellular proteins taken up by the cell. It plays a key role not only in general protein turnover but also in specialized physiological processes such as antigen presentation, cellular remodeling and metabolic adaptation during stress. Proteins targeted for lysosomal degradation are transported into the lysosome through four distinct routes, each with its own mechanism of substrate selection, delivery, and regulation. These include: Macroautophagy Microautophagy Chaperone-Mediated Au...
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Explain the role of ubiquitin in protein turnover

Ubiquitin is a highly conserved protein made up of  76 amino acids.  It functions as a regulatory molecule in cells by  tagging  specific proteins for degradation. This tagging ensures that unnecessary, misfolded, damaged, or short-lived proteins are identified, and removed in a selective and controlled way. This process is essential for maintaining cellular balance and preventing harmful accumulation of proteins. Ubiquitin does not perform the degradation itself, but by attaching to target proteins, it directs them to the proteasome, where they are broken down. This tagging function allows ubiquitin to play multiple crucial roles across different cellular processes. The major roles of ubiquitin in protein turnover can be classified as follows: 1. Protein Tagging for Degradation The most well-established role of ubiquitin is in  targeting proteins for degradation  via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). In this process, multiple ubiquitin molecules are c...
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What are the key properties of the protein turnover pathways?

Protein turnover is a continuous and regulated process in which proteins inside a cell are broken down and replaced by newly synthesized ones. It is not just a recycling mechanism, but also a core regulatory process that helps maintain cellular homeostasis. Through protein turnover, cells can remove misfolded, damaged, or excess proteins and replace them with functional ones. It also allows the cell to adapt to environmental stress, control the cell cycle, regulate signaling pathways, manage growth and apoptosis. Hence, the pathways responsible for protein turnover such as the  ubiquitin-proteasome system  and  lysosomal degradation system,  both are designed with specific properties that ensure precision, efficiency and control. The properties of protein turnover pathways can be systematically classified in two ways: Based on biochemical properties Based on physiological-level properties 1. Biochemical Properties of Protein Turnover Pathways There are three fundamen...
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Which type of cell junction is similar to plamosdesmata? Give a detailed account on gap junction

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The type of cell junction that is similar to plasmodesmata is the  gap junction.  Both allow the direct transfer of ions, small molecules and chemical signals between neighboring cells.  Plasmodesmata  are found in  plant cells,  while  gap junctions  are their functional counterparts in  animal cells. Gap Junction Gap junctions are a type of communicating cell junction found in animal cells. These structures form direct channels between adjacent cells, allowing for the transfer of ions, metabolites and small signaling molecules. They play a crucial role in maintaining tissue homeostasis, cell communication and coordinated cellular responses. These junctions are especially important in tissues that require rapid and synchronized communication like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and certain neural tissues. Structure of Gap Junctions Gap junctions are composed of transmembrane protein subunits known as  connexins.   Six connexin molecu...
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What is intracellular protein turnover?

Intracellular protein turnover is the continuous and regulated process by which proteins inside a cell are  synthesized  (built or formed) and  degraded  (broken down). This process plays a vital role in maintaining the cell's internal balance, known as  proteostasis.  It ensures that old, misfolded, damaged, and excess proteins are efficiently removed and replaced with newly synthesized, functional proteins. This dynamic balance between synthesis and degradation helps the cell adapt to changes, control growth, respond to stress and perform normal physiological functions. Each protein inside the cell has a specific half-life or lifespan. Some proteins are very short-lived and degrade within minutes, while others may last for hours or days. When a protein becomes non-functional, either due to damage or mutation, it must be removed. If this removal does not happen properly, faulty or misfolded proteins may accumulate and cause various diseases, including canc...
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How does the p53 tumour suppressor gene regulate the cell cycle?

The p53 tumor suppressor gene plays a critical role in safeguarding the integrity of the genome by controlling the cell cycle. It is often referred to as the  "guardian of the genome"  due to its essential function in preventing the propagation of damaged or mutated DNA, which is a key factor in cancer development. p53's regulation of the cell cycle is mainly focused on halting the cycle in response to DNA damage, thereby allowing time for repair or inducing apoptosis if the damage is irreparable. This process helps prevent the accumulation of mutations that could lead to tumor formation. There are five key steps involved in how p53 regulates the cell cycle: 1. Detection of DNA Damage and Activation of p53 When a cell experiences DNA damage due to radiation, toxins, oxidative stress, or other reasons, certain kinases like  ATM  and  ATR  are activated. These kinases phosphorylate the  p53 protein.  Normally, p53 is degraded quickly by MDM2, but ph...
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What is Cyclin-CDKs kinases? Write a brief note on the relation of cyclin with CDKs

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Cyclin-CDK kinases are enzyme complexes that control the progression of the eukaryotic cell cycle. These complexes consist of two main components: a  cyclin protein  and a  cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK).  CDKs are serine/threonine protein kinases that are present in the cell in an  inactive form.  They require the binding of a regulatory protein, called a  cyclin,  to become  active.  Once a cyclin binds to a CDK, the complex becomes enzymatically active and can phosphorylate various target proteins involved in controlling key steps of the cell cycle, such as DNA replication, chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle formation. The activity of cyclin-CDK complexes is regulated at multiple levels, including cyclin synthesis and degradation, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of CDKs, and the presence of CDK inhibitors (CKIs). This regulation ensures that each phase of the cell cycle occurs only once and in the proper order, preventin...
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Give a brief note on the control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a highly regulated process that ensures cells grow, replicate their DNA and divide accurately. Its control is crucial for normal development, tissue repair and prevention of diseases like cancer. This control is achieved mainly through a combination of regulatory proteins, checkpoints, inhibitory pathways and external signaling factors, all of which coordinate to monitor and regulate the progression of the cycle at every stage. 1. Cyclins and CDKs – The Core Regulators Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are special enzymes that become  active only when  they bind to a protein called  cyclin,  to form a  cyclin-CDK complex.  Different cyclins appear and disappear at specific times in the cell cycle, and this timing controls CDK activity. Each cyclin-CDK complex triggers important events of a particular phase of cell cycle. In the G1 phase,  Cyclin D binds to CDK4 or CDK6 to push the cell toward the S phase. During the S phase,  Cycli...
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What are the events involved in the S-phase of Interphase?

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The S-phase (Synthesis phase) is a critical part of interphase in the cell cycle, occurring between the G1 (gap 1) phase and the G2 (gap 2) phase. During this phase, the cell duplicates its DNA to prepare for cell division, ensuring that the genetic material is accurately passed on to the daughter cells. This phase is essential for maintaining genomic integrity and stability. Key Events in the S-phase 1. DNA Replication: The main event of the S-phase is DNA replication. This process ensures that the entire genome is copied so that each daughter cell will have an identical set of chromosomes. The helicase enzyme unwinds the DNA double helix, creating two single strands. These single strands act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands. 2. Activation of DNA Polymerases: DNA polymerases are key enzymes that catalyze the addition of new nucleotides to the growing strand. On the  leading strand,  DNA polymerase synthesizes continuously in the 5' to 3' direction. ...
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UNIT 16 – Cell Death and Renewal (Q&A) | MZO-001 MSCZOO | IGNOU

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SAQ i) Match the items in column I with column II: Answer: a) → iv;    b) → iii;    c) → vii;    d) → viii;    e) → vi;    f) → i;    g) → ii;    h) → x;    i) → v;    j) → xi;    k) → ix ii) Fill in the blanks: a) Autophagy includes the formation of three different vesicles including ....................., which circularizes to form ......................, which then fuses with a lysosome to form the ..................... . Answer: phagophore, autophagosome, autolysosome b) Apoptosis can be mediated by two modes or pathways, ....................... or ....................... . Answer: intrinsic, extrinsic c) Pharmacological inhibitors such as ....................... block the lysosomal proton transport and thus autophagy. Answer: Bafilomycin A1 d) ...................... is released from the mitochondria upon MOMP and binds to the adapter protein Apaf1 to form the complex known as ..........
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UNIT 16 – Cell Death and Renewal (Q&A) | MZO-001 MSCZOO | IGNOU

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SAQ i) Match the items in column I with column II: Answer: a) → iv;    b) → iii;    c) → vii;    d) → viii;    e) → vi;    f) → i;    g) → ii;    h) → x;    i) → v;    j) → xi;    k) → ix ii) Fill in the blanks: a) Autophagy includes the formation of three different vesicles including ....................., which circularizes to form ......................, which then fuses with a lysosome to form the ..................... . Answer: phagophore, autophagosome, autolysosome b) Apoptosis can be mediated by two modes or pathways, ....................... or ....................... . Answer: intrinsic, extrinsic c) Pharmacological inhibitors such as ....................... block the lysosomal proton transport and thus autophagy. Answer: Bafilomycin A1 d) ...................... is released from the mitochondria upon MOMP and binds to the adapter protein Apaf1 to form the complex known as ..........
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UNIT 1 – Mendel's Laws (Q&A) | MZO-002 MSCZOO | IGNOU

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SAQ 1 Fill in the blanks a) The title of the paper presented by Mendel in 1866 is ......................... . Answer: Experiments in Plant Hybridization b) The term 'genetics' was coined by ........................ . Answer: William Bateson c) Mendel proposed the concept of ...................... units. Answer: hereditary   d) Mendel's work was rediscovered by ........................., ........................... and .......................... . Answer: Carl Correns, Hugo de Vries and Erich von Tschermak SAQ 2 Answer in one word. a) In Mendelian crosses, progeny is produced from the mating of individuals in the parental generation. Answer: first filial generation or F1 b) The factors that regulate the inheritance of traits and act like discrete particles that remain separate. Answer: hereditary factors (genes) c) A genetic cross involving a single (mono) trait. Answer: monohybrid cross d) A trait/factor that remains hidden and not fully expressed in the progeny. Answer: re...
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What are the events involved in the S-phase of Interphase?

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The S-phase (Synthesis phase) is a critical part of interphase in the cell cycle, occurring between the G1 (gap 1) phase and the G2 (gap 2) phase. During this phase, the cell duplicates its DNA to prepare for cell division, ensuring that the genetic material is accurately passed on to the daughter cells. This phase is essential for maintaining genomic integrity and stability. Key Events in the S-phase 1. DNA Replication: The main event of the S-phase is DNA replication. This process ensures that the entire genome is copied so that each daughter cell will have an identical set of chromosomes. The helicase enzyme unwinds the DNA double helix, creating two single strands. These single strands act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands. 2. Activation of DNA Polymerases: DNA polymerases are key enzymes that catalyze the addition of new nucleotides to the growing strand. On the  leading strand,  DNA polymerase synthesizes continuously in the 5' to 3' direction. ...
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UNIT 2 – Gene Action and Interactions (Q&A) | MZO-002 MSCZOO | IGNOU

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SAQ 1 Fill in the blanks with appropriate word: a) A condition in which a gene or gene pair suppresses or hinders the expression of another non-allelic gene is called ...................... . Answer: epistasis b) The phenotype effect gets enhanced because of the effect of ....................... genes. Answer: cumulative or additive  c) Red eye colour in Drosophila melanogaster is due to the deposition of pigment ...................... . Answer: drosopterins d) Progeny shows a ratio of ........................ in case of duplicate dominant epistasis.  Answer: 15 : 1 e) Epistasis in which a dominant allele at one locus can mask the expression of both (dominant and recessive) alleles at the second locus occurs due to .......................... gene interaction. Answer: inhibitory SAQ 2 State whether these statements are 'True' or 'False.' a) Pleiotropy occurs when a gene shows a complementary gene interaction with another gene. Answer: False b) Pleiotropic effects of albi...
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What is intracellular protein turnover?

Intracellular protein turnover is the continuous and regulated process by which proteins inside a cell are  synthesized  (built or formed) and  degraded  (broken down). This process plays a vital role in maintaining the cell's internal balance, known as  proteostasis.  It ensures that old, misfolded, damaged, and excess proteins are efficiently removed and replaced with newly synthesized, functional proteins. This dynamic balance between synthesis and degradation helps the cell adapt to changes, control growth, respond to stress and perform normal physiological functions. Each protein inside the cell has a specific half-life or lifespan. Some proteins are very short-lived and degrade within minutes, while others may last for hours or days. When a protein becomes non-functional, either due to damage or mutation, it must be removed. If this removal does not happen properly, faulty or misfolded proteins may accumulate and cause various diseases, including canc...
Read more

Give a brief note on the control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a highly regulated process that ensures cells grow, replicate their DNA and divide accurately. Its control is crucial for normal development, tissue repair and prevention of diseases like cancer. This control is achieved mainly through a combination of regulatory proteins, checkpoints, inhibitory pathways and external signaling factors, all of which coordinate to monitor and regulate the progression of the cycle at every stage. 1. Cyclins and CDKs – The Core Regulators Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are special enzymes that become  active only when  they bind to a protein called  cyclin,  to form a  cyclin-CDK complex.  Different cyclins appear and disappear at specific times in the cell cycle, and this timing controls CDK activity. Each cyclin-CDK complex triggers important events of a particular phase of cell cycle. In the G1 phase,  Cyclin D binds to CDK4 or CDK6 to push the cell toward the S phase. During the S phase,  Cycli...
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What is the role of the p53 tumour suppressor gene in preventing cancer?

The p53 gene is a very important tumour suppressor gene found in almost every cell of the body. It produces a protein called  p53 protein,  which is also known as the  "guardian of the genome".  Its main job is to keep the cell healthy by checking the condition of the DNA. If any damage or mutation is found, p53 takes action to stop that cell from becoming a cancer cell. How p53 Prevents Cancer p53 protects the body from cancer in many ways. Here are its main roles: 1. DNA Damage Detection p53 is always monitoring the DNA. When it finds any damage or mutation, it quickly becomes active. This is the first step. If such damage is ignored, the cell may continue dividing with mistakes, which can lead to cancer. So, p53 first detects problems and prepares the cell to respond. 2. Halting the Cell Cycle Once damage is found, p53 stops the cell cycle to give the cell enough time to repair the DNA. It does this by increasing the production of a protein called  p21, ...
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What is Cyclin-CDKs kinases? Write a brief note on the relation of cyclin with CDKs

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Cyclin-CDK kinases are enzyme complexes that control the progression of the eukaryotic cell cycle. These complexes consist of two main components: a  cyclin protein  and a  cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK).  CDKs are serine/threonine protein kinases that are present in the cell in an  inactive form.  They require the binding of a regulatory protein, called a  cyclin,  to become  active.  Once a cyclin binds to a CDK, the complex becomes enzymatically active and can phosphorylate various target proteins involved in controlling key steps of the cell cycle, such as DNA replication, chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle formation. The activity of cyclin-CDK complexes is regulated at multiple levels, including cyclin synthesis and degradation, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of CDKs, and the presence of CDK inhibitors (CKIs). This regulation ensures that each phase of the cell cycle occurs only once and in the proper order, preventin...
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UNIT 3 – Gene Structure and Function (Q&A) | MZO-002 MSCZOO | IGNOU

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SAQ 1 i) Define Recon, Muton and Cistron. The terms Recon, Muton and Cistron were introduced by Seymour Benzer during the 1950s to study the detailed structure and function of genes at the molecular level. He worked on the rII region of T4 bacteriophage and used bacteriophage genetics to analyze how small changes in DNA affect phenotypes. At that time, the gene was considered as a single indivisible unit. But Benzer showed that a gene has a finer internal structure and can be divided into smaller functional units. Based on this, he proposed three molecular units: Recon, Muton and Cistron, each having a specific role related to recombination, mutation and expression. Recon Recon is defined as the smallest unit of recombination. It refers to the smallest segment of DNA within which crossing over cannot occur, but recombination can occur between two such units. According to modern molecular understanding, recombination between two genes or within a gene occurs at the level of nucleotid...
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How is the p53 protein activated?

The p53 protein is a tumour suppressor that remains inactive under normal cell conditions. Its activation is carefully regulated and occurs only when the cell experiences  stress,  especially DNA damage. This activation helps the cell decide whether to pause the cycle for repair or undergo apoptosis. The process of activation mainly depends on blocking its negative regulator and allowing p53 to become stable and active. Mechanism of p53 Activation The activation of p53 happens mainly in response to DNA damage, oxidative stress, hypoxia, or oncogene activation. The steps involved are: Step 1: Detection of DNA Damage When DNA is damaged due to UV rays, radiation, chemicals, or errors during replication, special sensor proteins such as  ATM (Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated)  and  ATR (ATM and Rad3-related)  are activated. These proteins sense the damage and initiate a signalling cascade. Step 2: Activation of Checkpoint Kinases ATM and ATR then activate downstre...
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